Origin Myths of the Inca Civilization & Piecing Together Royal Heritage

According to most historical accounts, especially those collected by the early Spanish chroniclers of the 16th century, and just after the destructive efforts of the conquistadors, the Inca were believed to have originated in the area of Lake Titicaca, south of present day Cusco, Peru. More specifically, archaeological evidence suggests that the Inca developed as a cohesive group on the Island of the Sun and Island of the Moon on what is today the Bolivian side of Lake Titicaca, as well as the nearby town of Copacabana. This is thought by many scholars to have begun around 100 BC to 100 AD.

Lake Titicaca, Peru (Public Domain)

Over the course of the next number of centuries, the Inca evolved as a rather complex society, especially in regards to agricultural cultivation, mainly in the form of terracing systems called Andene. Almost the entire Island of the Sun was developed with these Andene, which can be witnessed to this very day, though they are largely no longer in use.

Andenes at Moray, Peru. ( CC BY 3.0 )

The Navel of the World

Lake Titicaca was once part of the Pacific Ocean, and over the course of millions of years, due to friction between the Pacific and Nazca tectonic plates, it slowly rose to its present elevation of approximately 13,000 feet. Slowly, over time, the saline content of the lake was reduced from millions of years of rainfall, and a major or several major tectonic shifts caused the Altiplano area to tilt, rising in the north and sinking in the south. The last of these catastrophic movements likely occurred between 45,000 and 12,000 years ago, creating the largest salt flat in the world at Uyuni, south of Lake Titicaca, and shrinking the lake’s size by 90 percent.

The Search for the Tomb and Treasure of the Last Inca EmperorGod’s Gate and the Sun Temple: A Mysterious Incan Portal Leading to Other Worlds

The Salar Salt Flats of Uyuni (Public Domain)

The lake still has a high enough salt mineral content that the water cannot be used for irrigation, and that would have been true during Inca times as well; thus, they were dependent on rainfall to water their crops. Around 900 to 1000 AD, there was a 40-year drought, the result of local climate change, perhaps exacerbated by an excessive El Nino event, which put great hardship on the Inca people. This was further complicated by the invasion of indigenous Aymara Natives, who plotted to, and eventually ran the Inca out of the territory.

Again, according to most accounts, especially those of the Spanish chronicles, the Inca then ventured north, and over the course of time established themselves in what was to become their capital city of Cusco. In the Inca language, called Runa Simi which means the “peoples’ voice” and not Quechua which most presume, Cusco means “navel”, and was the navel or core of their world from its inception to the destruction by the Spanish in about 1532 AD.

Inca terraces at P'isaq. (Public Domain)

Children of Viracocha

Oral tradition states that the Inca “rose from the waters” of Lake Titicaca at the behest of their creator God Viracocha, who had previously made a race of giants, but they were stupid and cumbersome, so he destroyed them in a great flood. In most of the accounts four pairs of twin brothers and sisters were created, the two most prominent of them being Manco Capac (royal founder) and his sister/wife Mama Ocllo, who became the first official Inca rulers, likely by the time they reached and established Cusco.

Viracocha (Public Domain)

Another account, taught to the author by Cusco-based anthropologist Dr. Theo Paredes, is that this first ruler’s name was Mallku Capac, which could be translated as “of royal wisdom.” Dr. Paredes, who is an expert of the Runa Simi Inca language believes that the reason why the Inca first arrived in Cusco was not that they had been chased out of the Lake Titicaca area by the Aymara people, but that ancient wisdom keepers, who were carriers of very ancient traditions lived in Cusco, and that Mallku Capac had to go there to complete his education in order to become the first high Inca.

Part of the Inca Trail system (Public Domain)

In other legends, Manco Capac (also known as Ayar Manco) was the son of Viracocha of Paqariq Tampu (six leagues or 25 km south of Cusco). He and his brothers (Ayar Auca, Ayar Cachi and Ayar Uchu) and sisters (Mama Ocllo, Mama Huaco, Mama Raua and Mama Ipacura) lived near Cusco at Paqariq Tampu, and they united their people with other tribes encountered in their travels. They sought to conquer the tribes of the Cusco Valley, and these legends also incorporate an important golden staff, thought to have been given to Manco Capac by his father.

The Crux Constellation - Universe Today

Welcome to another edition of Constellation Friday! Today, in honor of the late and great Tammy Plotner, we take a look at the "Southern Cross" - the Crux constellation. Enjoy!

In the 2nd century CE, Greek-Egyptian astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus (aka. Ptolemy) compiled a list of all the then-known 48 constellations. This treatise, known as the Almagest, would be used by medieval European and Islamic scholars for over a thousand years to come, effectively becoming astrological and astronomical canon until the early Modern Age.

One of these constellations is known as Crux, a small constellation located in the southern skies. Despite its size, it is one of the most well-known constellations in the southern hemisphere due to its distinctive cross-shape. Today, it has gone on to become one of the 88 modern constellations currently recognized by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).

Name and Meaning:

For the people of the Southern Hemisphere, the Crux constellation has a great deal of cultural significance. The Incas knew the constellation as Chakana (Quechua for "the stair"), and a stone image of the stars was found in Machu Picchu, Peru. To the Maori, the constellation was known as Te Punga, or "the anchor", due to the important role it played in maritime navigation.

The "Emu in the Sky", an important constellation recognized by the Aborigines of Australia. Credit: RSAA/ANU

To the Aborigines of Australia, the cross and the Coalsack Nebula together represented the head of the Emu in the Sky. This mythical bird is associated with several Aborigine creation myths and is one of the most important constellations in their astronomical traditions. Because of this significance, the Southern Cross is represented on the flags of Australia, Papua New Guinea, New Zealand Brazil, and Brazil.

The first recorded instance of Crux being named is believed to have occurred in 1455, when Venetian navigator Alvise Cadamosto made note of an asterism in the southern skies that he called carr dell'ostro ("southern chariot"). However, historians generally credit Portugese astronomer Joao Faras with the discovery, which occurred in 1500 when he spotted it from Brazil and named it "Las Guardas" ("the guards").

By the late 16th century, Crux began to be depicted as a separate constellation on celestial globes and maps. In these and subsequent maps, the name Crux was used (Latin for "Cross"), referring to the constellation's distinct shape.

History of Observation:

Crux was originally considered to be part of Centaurus, but as the precession of the equinoxes gradually lowered these stars below the European horizon, they were lost sight of, and so was the memory of these stars. At one time, around 1000 BCE, the stars of Crux were visible to the northern hemisphere, but by 400 CE they had slipped below the horizon for most populated areas.

The constellation Crux as it can be seen by the naked eye. Credit: Till Credner/AlltheSky.com

Even though it was originally plotted on Ptolemy's Almagest, it first appeared as "Crux" on the charts of Petrus Plancius and Jodocus Hondius in 1598 and 1600 - both navigators. It is known that Amerigo Vespucci mapped the stars of Crux on his expedition to South America in 1501, and with good reason!

Two of the stars of Crux (Alpha and Gamma, Acrux and Gacrux respectively) are commonly used to mark due south. Following the line defined by the two stars for approximately 4.5 times the distance between them leads to a point close to the Southern Celestial Pole. A definite point needed for navigation! In 1920, Crux was included among the 88 modern constellations recognized by the IAU.

Notable Objects:

Of the major stars in Crux, Alpha Crucis (Acrux) is the brightest, and the 12th brightest star in the night sky. It is located approximately 320 light years away and is a multiple star system composed of Alpha-1 Crucis (a B class subgiant) and Alpha-2 Crucis (a B class dwarf). Both stars are very hot and their respective luminosities are 25,000 and 16,000 times that of the Sun.

Beta Crucis (Becrux, or Mimosa) is the second brightest star of the Southern Cross and the 20th brightest star in the night sky. It is approximately 350 light years distant, is classified as a Beta Cephei variable, and is a spectroscopic binary composed of two stars that are about 8 AU apart and orbit each other every five years. The name Mimosa refers to its color (blue-hued).

Gamma Crucis (Gacrux) is a red giant that is approximately 88 light years distant from Earth. It is the third brightest star in the Crux constellation and the 26th brightest star in the sky. Located about 400 light years distant from Earth, this binary star is composed of a M4 red dwarf star and a A3 white dwarf star.

Crux is also associated with several Deep Sky Objects, the most notable of which is the Coalsack Nebula. This object is easily seen as a dark patch in the southern region of the Milky Way (hence the name) and crosses into the neighboring constellations of Centaurus and Musca. It is located about 600 light years from Earth and is between 30 and 35 light years in radius. In Aboriginal astronomy, the nebula represents the head of the Emu.

Then there's the Kappa Crucis Cluster (aka. the "Jewel Box" or "Herschel's Jewel Box"), an open star cluster that is located approximately 6,440 light years from Earth. It contains roughly 100 stars and is one of the youngest clusters ever discovered (only 14 million years old). To the naked eye, the cluster appears like a star near Beta Crucis.

Finding Crux:

The constellation itself consists of four bright, main stars and 19 stars which have Bayer/Flamsteed designations. It is bordered by the constellations of Centaurus and Musca. At present, Crux is visible at latitudes between +20° and -90°. While it is fairly circumpolar for the southern hemisphere, it is best seen a culmination during the month of May.

The location of the Crux constellation. Credit: IAU

Now, let's take out binoculars and examine its stars, started with Alpha Crucis, the "a" shape on our map. Its proper name is Acrux and it is the twelfth brightest star in the night sky. If you switch your binoculars out for a telescope, you'll find that 321 light year distant Acrux is also a binary star, with components separated by about 4 arc seconds and around one half stellar magnitude difference in brightness.

The brighter of the two, A1 is itself a spectroscopic binary star - with a companion that orbits no further away than our own Earth, yet is around 14 times larger than our own Sun! Needless to say, there's a very good chance this star may one day go supernova. While you're there, take a look an addition 90 arc seconds away for a third star. While it may just be an optical companion to the Acrux system, it does share the same proper motion!

Back to binoculars an on to Beta Crucis - the "B" shape on the map. Mimosa is located about 353 light years away from our solar system and it is also a spectroscopic binary star. This magnificent blue/white giant star is tied at number 19 as one of the brightest stars in the sky, and if we could put it side by side with our Sun it would be 3000 times brighter. Mimosa is also a multiply-periodic Beta-Cephi type star, too, fluxing by about 1/10 of a magnitude in as little as hours. What's going on? Inside Beta Crucis the iron content is only about half that of Sol and it's nearing the end of its hydrogen-fusing stage. When the iron core develops? Watch out! It's supernova time....

Now hang on to your binoculars and head north for Gamma Crucis, the "Y" shape on the map. Gacrux, is a red giant star approximately 88 light-years away from Earth. Did you notice its optical companion about 2 arc minutes away at an angle of 128 degrees from the main star? While the two look close together in the sky, the secondary star is actually 400 light years away! Gacrux shows its beautiful orange coloring to prove it has evolved off of the main sequence to become a red giant star, and it may even be evolving past the helium-burning stage.

The Coalsack Nebula and Kappa Crucis Cluster. Credit: A. Fujii

Move on now to Delta Crucis - the figure "8" on our map. Decrux is a red giant star located about 360 light years away from our vantage point. Delta Crucis is also Beta Cephei variable and changes its brightness just a tiny bit over a period of about an hour and 20 minutes. Another cool factoid about Delta Crucis is that it's a fast rotator - spinning at a speed of at least 194 kilometers per second at the equator and making a full rotation in about 32 hours.

This massive star also produces a massive stellar wind, shooting off 1000 times more material than our own Sun every second of every day! Or try R Crucis... It's also a Beta-Cephi type variable star, but it changes by nearly a full stellar magnitude in just a little over five days!

Keep your binoculars handy and head back to Beta and sweep south a degree and a half for the Kappa Crucis star cluster. This beautiful galactic cluster of stars commonly known as the Jewel Box (NGC 4755). After you see its glittering collection of multi-colored stars, you'll understand how it got its name! It is one of the youngest clusters, perhaps only a few million years old.

Kappa Crucis is also right on the edge of a dark void in the sky called the "Coal Sack". While you're looking around, you'll notice that there seem to be very few stars in this area. That's because they are being blocked by a dark nebula! The Coal Sack is a large, dark dust cloud about 500 light years away and it's blocking out the light from stars which lie beyond it. The few stars you do see are in front of the cloud and much nearer to the Earth.

The Jewel Box - the Kappa Crucis Cluster. Credit: ESO/NASA/ESA/Digitized Sky Survey 2/Jesús Maíz Apellániz (Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía, Spain)

Now it's telescope time. Head to Alpha Crucis and slightly less than 2 degrees east for NGC4609. Also on the edge of the Coalsack, this large, fairly condensed open cluster contains about 40 members and they are well spread across the sky. The pattern somewhat resembles the constellation of Orion (in the imagination, of course!). Mark you observing notes for Caldwell 98. Next stop? Back to Delta and less than 3 degrees south/southwest for NGC4103, another open cluster on the edge of night. With a little bit of imagination, this grouping of stars could appear to look like a celestial water tower!

We have written many interesting articles about the constellation here at Universe Today. Here is What Are The Constellations?, What Is The Zodiac?, and Zodiac Signs And Their Dates.

Be sure to check out The Messier Catalog while you're at it!

For more information, check out the IAUs list of Constellations, and the Students for the Exploration and Development of Space page on Canes Venatici and Constellation Families.

Sources:

By Tammy Plotner
Tammy was a professional astronomy author, President Emeritus of Warren Rupp Observatory and retired Astronomical League Executive Secretary. She's received a vast number of astronomy achievement and observing awards, including the Great Lakes Astronomy Achievement Award, RG Wright Service Award and the first woman astronomer to achieve Comet Hunter's Gold Status. (Tammy passed away in early 2015... she will be missed)

88 IAU constellations, Acrux, Almagest, Constellations, Crux, Featured, Mimosa, the southern cross

new research in genetics and historical records is tracing noble Inca bloodlines to the direct descendants of Atahualpa and his kin – often among the most humble families of modern Perú

When the last Inca emperor, Atahualpa, was executed by Francisco Pizarro in 1533, the conquistadores moved quickly to obliterate all traces of what had been the largest empire of its time.

Temples were sacked and stripped of gold; on holy days, Inca nobles were forced to parade Christian saints instead of the mummies of their ancestors; the engineering skills behind Machu Picchu and a 25,000-mile network of roads stretching from Colombia to Argentina were forgotten.

And in this new society that oppressed all of Peru’s indigenous population, the names of noble families – the “children of the sun” who had once lived as demigods – were gradually erased from history.

But new research in genetics and historical records is tracing noble Inca bloodlines to the direct descendants of Atahualpa and his kin – often among the most humble families of modern Peru.

The Dutch historian Ronald Elward has been investigating the fate of the Inca nobility since he moved to Peru in 2009. “I discovered it was more common to find a gardener or servant with an Inca surname than a person from a middle- or upper-class background,” he said.

While surnames that indicate direct descent from royal blood – such as Yupanqui, meaning “memorable”, and Pachacutec, meaning “transformer of the Earth” – were proudly preserved in rural areas, indigenous names were looked down upon in urban centres.

Elward pored through tens of thousands of pages of public documents in Cusco, once the centre of the Incan empire, checking all available parish records for the period from 1720 to 1920 as well as the archives of more than 250 public notaries. After identifying 25 royal Inca families, he set about tracking down their descendants.

“The moment I started interviewing people about their life stories, the whole thing became less dusty records and more a social and cultural reality which had been very untouched. That was the main surprise,” he said.

Roberta Huamanrimanchi Tupahuacayllo, with her daughter, is descended from Inca blue blood on her mother's side. Photograph: Dan Collyns for the Guardian

One of Elward’s interviewees was Roberta Huamanrimanchi Tupahuacayllo, 40, who inherits Inca blue blood from her mother. A former municipal worker now caring for infant children, Huamanrimanchi described how she was teased at school for her long indigenous surnames.

“I’m very proud of my surname. I’m not ashamed, although people still laugh because it’s difficult to pronounce,” she said.

Perhaps in an unconscious echo of the Inca custom of keeping the mummies of deceased family members, Huamanrimanchi’s 79-year-old father, Mariano, proudly displays the skulls of his mother, sister and brother on the mantelpiece.

Other descendants are far more conscious of their royal pedigree. Alfredo Inca Roca, 69, claims he can trace his lineage back nearly 500 years to 1560, 17 years after the first Spanish people arrived in Cusco in 1543.

The urbane lawyer also claims to have the documentation to prove it, in the form of a parchment signed in 1545 by the Holy Roman emperor Carlos V, who was also the king of Spain. The missive grants his ancestor “Inga Roca” corresponding royal status and gives him a coat of arms which replaces the lions of the old world with South American jaguars.

Mariano Huamanrimanchi, 79, shows a relative's skull that he keeps at home out of respect for his ancestors. Photograph: Dan Collyns for the Guardian

“He used this nice phrase [to the conquistadores]: I don’t send you to kill kings but to serve kings,” Inca Roca said. “But it did not do much to alter the behaviour of the Spanish viceroyalty, which subjugated my ancestors.”

Inca pride is infectious in San Sebastian, where schoolchildren are now encouraged to learn their once-denigrated Quechua mother tongue.

The Peruvian geneticist Ricardo Fujita has drawn on Elward’s work to establish a DNA correlation between two groups numbering around 35 people who claim patrilineal descent from Huayna Capac, father to the executed Atahualpa.

The absence of any Inca mummies, which were destroyed by the Spanish, means DNA comparisons can be made only between those who claim they are descendants .

But backed by the National Geographic’s Genographic Project, the investigation has found genetic links between supposed Inca descendants and indigenous populations near Lake Titicaca, appearing to corroborate the myth that the sun-worshipping conquerors originated there.

“The official history of Peru [begins] when the Europeans arrive here in 1532 but before that we have 1,400 years of history,” said Fujita, head of genetics and molecular biology at Lima’s San Martin de Porres University.

“That history is not recorded in writing – but it is recorded in our DNA: we are reconstructing the history of the people that don’t have history.

Cuando el último emperador inca, Atahualpa, fue ejecutado por Francisco Pizarro en 1533, los conquistadores se movieron rápidamente para eliminar todos los restos de lo que fue el imperio más grande de su tiempo.

Los templos fueron saqueados y despojados de oro; en los días festivos, los nobles incas se vieron obligados a desfile de santos cristianos en lugar de las momias de sus antepasados; Se olvidan las habilidades de ingeniería detrás de Machu Picchu y una red de 25.000 millas de carreteras que se extienden desde Colombia a Argentina.

Y en esta nueva sociedad que oprimía a toda la población indígena de Perú, los nombres de las familias nobles - los "Hijos del Sol" que una vez había vivido como semidioses - se borran gradualmente de la historia.

Pero una nueva investigación de la genética y los registros históricos está trazando líneas de sangre noble Inca a los descendientes directos de Atahualpa y sus parientes - a menudo entre las familias más humildes del Perú moderno.

El historiador holandés Ronald Elward ha sido investigar el destino de la nobleza Inca desde que se trasladó a Perú en 2009 "descubrí que era más común encontrar un jardinero o servidor con un apellido Inca que una persona de una clase media o alta fondo ", dijo.

Mientras que los apellidos que indican descendencia directa de sangre real - como Yupanqui, que significa "memorable", y Pachacutec, que significa "transformador de la Tierra" - se conservaron con orgullo en las zonas rurales, los nombres indígenas eran despreciadas en los centros urbanos.

Elward estudió minuciosamente a través de decenas de miles de páginas de documentos públicos en Cusco, una vez que el centro del imperio Inca, la comprobación de todos los registros parroquiales disponibles para el período 1720-1920, así como los archivos de más de 250 notarios públicos. Después de la identificación de 25 familias real Inca, se dedicó a la pista a sus descendientes.

"En el momento en que empecé a entrevistar a la gente acerca de sus historias de vida, todo el asunto se convirtió en los registros menos polvorientos y más una realidad social y cultural que había sido muy intacta. Esa fue la principal sorpresa ", dijo.

Roberta Huamanrimanchi Tupahuacayllo, con su hija, es descendiente de la sangre azul de Inca por parte de su madre. Fotografía: Dan Collyns para The Guardian

Uno de los entrevistados de Elward era Roberta Huamanrimanchi Tupahuacayllo, 40, que hereda la sangre azul Inca de su madre. Un ex trabajador municipal ahora el cuidado de los niños lactantes, Huamanrimanchi describió cómo era objeto de burlas en la escuela por sus largas apellidos indígenas.

"Estoy muy orgulloso de mi apellido. No me da vergüenza, aunque la gente todavía se ríen porque es difícil de pronunciar ", dijo.

Tal vez en un eco inconsciente de la costumbre inca de mantenimiento de las momias de los miembros difuntos de la familia, de 79 años de edad y padre de Huamanrimanchi, Mariano, muestra con orgullo el cráneo de su madre, hermana y hermano en la repisa de la chimenea.

Otros descendientes son mucho más conscientes de su pedigrí real. Alfredo Inca Roca, de 69 años, afirma que puede rastrear su linaje hasta casi 500 años para 1560, 17 años después de las primeras personas españoles llegaron a Cusco en 1543.

El abogado urbana también dice tener la documentación para probarlo, en forma de un pergamino firmado en 1545 por la Santa emperador romano Carlos V, que era también el rey de España. La misiva otorga su antepasado "Inga Roca" correspondiente estatus real y le da un escudo de armas que sustituye a los leones del viejo mundo con jaguares de América del Sur.

Mariano Huamanrimanchi, 79, muestra el cráneo de un pariente que guarda en su casa por respeto a sus antepasados. Fotografía: Dan Collyns para The Guardian

"Él utilizó esta frase agradable [a] los conquistadores: no te mando a matar a los reyes, sino para servir reyes", dijo Inca Roca. "Pero no hizo mucho para alterar el comportamiento del virreinato español, que subyugó a mis antepasados."

orgullo del inca es infecciosa en San Sebastián, donde ahora se anima a los alumnos a aprender su lengua materna el quechua denigrado vez.

El genetista peruano Ricardo Fujita se ha basado en la obra de Elward para establecer una correlación de ADN entre dos grupos de numeración de alrededor de 35 personas que dicen la descendencia patrilineal de Huayna Cápac, padre de Atahualpa ejecutado.

La ausencia de momias incas, las cuales fueron destruidas por el español, significa comparaciones de ADN se pueden realizar sólo entre aquellos que afirman ser descendientes.

Pero respaldado por el Proyecto Genográfico de National Geographic, la investigación ha encontrado vínculos genéticos entre los supuestos descendientes del Inca y poblaciones indígenas cerca del lago Titicaca, que aparece para corroborar el mito de que los conquistadores de culto al sol se originaron allí.

"La historia oficial del Perú [comienza] cuando los europeos llegan aquí en 1532, pero antes de eso tenemos 1.400 años de historia", dijo Fujita, director de la genética y la biología molecular en la Universidad San Martín de Porres de Lima.

"Que la historia no se registra por escrito - pero se graba en nuestro ADN: estamos reconstruyendo la historia de las personas que no tienen historia".